A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 6 The Rise of the Greek City-States
[-]. Greece's cultural heritage
Inheritors of all ages The Greeks were not only heirs of ancient heritages, but also excellent administrators of them.They inherited many things from their predecessors and left many things to future generations.

The use of language, fire, tools and weapons handed down from ancient times.In addition to these, the Greeks used sewing, painting, and carving techniques to produce exquisite jade ornaments during the Paleolithic Age.Since the Neolithic Age, they have inherited the methods and secrets of planting grains, raising and using livestock, grinding stone tools, building houses, making pottery, spinning threads, weaving cloth, and making wheeled vehicles.

Not only that, but the Greeks also borrowed many crafts and skills from their neighbors, such as the Cretans, Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians, all of whom were more civilized than Greece.As we have learned earlier, people in the Near East already knew how to build luxurious stone temples, carve exquisite stone statues, use tools for making bronze, build ships, play musical instruments and other skills.In addition, Greece's neighbors also knew how to organize a strong government and write codes and documents.For these, it is enough for the Greeks to learn to use them, and there is no need to invent them themselves.

Diversity and Progress For Greek civilization, diversity was an indispensable factor for its progress.Taking a variety of scripts as examples, Babylonian cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Semitic phonetic alphabets are all available to the Greeks.The Greeks chose the simplest and best-used alphabet and made it a tonal language.How smart and lucky that is.The Greeks are not only very good at choosing words, but also can adapt and master other skills as soon as possible.They improved on the basis of learning technology, and soon surpassed their predecessors.

Gift of Crete The ancient Greeks learned many arts and cultures from the Cretans.Between 1600 BC and 1200 BC, as we mentioned above, the Minoan culture flourished.Some powerful chieftains occupied the hilltop castles around Mycenae and Tiryns.Later, these castles became strange rocky ruins.The art treasures found in the castle ruins of the Cretan civilization show the high prosperity of the Cretan civilization.Some historians believe that Mycenaean rule extended far and wide, and call this era the "Mycenaean Age".

There is a reason why "Achaean" and "Homeric" historians draw this conclusion, because the majestic castles that symbolize wealth and power are quite common in the Mycenae area.However, the later "Mycenaean Age" has two new names.One is because the Achaeans were the first group of Greeks we are most familiar with, and at the same time the chiefs of the Achaians were more powerful, so they are also called the "Achaean Era".The second is because most of our knowledge of the Achaeans comes from the book "Homer's Epic", so it is also called the "Homer Age".

According to legend, the two great poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, were originally written by a blind poet, Homer. The Iliad is named after a city called Ilion or Troy, and the Odyssey is named after the man who helped capture Troy.Some critics believe that before the ninth century BC, troubadours had been generally singing romantic narrative poems.Other critics believe that not all the poems in "Homer's Epic" are from Homer.In short, the poems in "Homer's Epic" tell fascinating stories about love and war.The walled city of Troy surrounded by the Greeks, the horses and chariots, the small ships, the pictures of life and religion, in the eyes of the king of Achaia, are all a picture of prosperity and beauty.

There are paintings in poetry For a long time, people have believed that poetry is the oldest literary work, and all nations spent their childhood in singing psalms.The Rig Veda of the Aryans and the Homer Epic of the Greeks are poems in which early people wrote their long history.

At the same time, in terms of literature, "Homer's Epic" has enriched the poetry and history of ancient Greece. "Homer's Epic" describes the gods and goddesses, Zeus, the father of gods and men, Hera, Zeus' wife, Aphrodite, the god of love (also translated as Aphrodite), Poseidon, the sea god, and Athena with gray eyes s story.Despite the absurdity and weirdness of the behavior of the gods, it still feels very intimate.

"Homer's Epic" also depicts the hunting of the king and nobles, and the luxurious scene of holding a banquet in a luxurious hall and enjoying music after the hunting returns.As for farmers and herdsmen, the epic does not describe much.In the life of the Achaeans, as long as a guest came to the house, they would entertain them, provide the best room, and give generous gifts to the guest when they left.The hospitality of the guests is regardless of regulars or strangers, which reflects their good custom of generosity and hospitality.If the host refuses to entertain or neglects the guests, the gods will be angered.This is probably the reason why the Trojan War broke out.

There is such a story in Homer's Epic about the Trojan War.One day, a young Trojan prince, Paris, came to visit him at the palace of King Menelaus of Sparta.There is no doubt that Menelaus entertained him with royal hospitality.However, the shameless Paris seduces Menelaus's wife, the beautiful Helen, and he even asks Helen to elope with him.They crossed the Aegean Sea and returned to Troy.So Menelaus, who was furious, and the king of Mycenae, his brother Agamemnon, summoned the other kings of Achaia to conquer Troy together.

They led a large number of soldiers and ships, and started a ten-year war with Troy.In a two-party war, the vast majority of the form is fighting.In a fight, the great Trojan hero Hector was defeated by the brave Greek Achilles and died.At the end of the war, Odysseus proposed a strategy: only leave a huge wooden horse in front of the city of Troy, while the other Greeks boarded the ship, pretending to sail back home.The Trojans didn't think much of it, and happily took the wooden horse and dragged it into the city, but they didn't know that there were Greek soldiers hidden inside the wooden horse.At night, the soldiers hidden in the wooden horse ran out quietly and opened the city gate.In this way, the city of Troy was quickly reduced to ruins and ashes.

Needless to say, this story is part fact and part fiction.In recent years, people have discovered the ruins of a burned ancient city on the northeast coast of the Aegean Sea, with stone walls as thick as fifteen feet.Historians are fairly certain that this is the city of Troy, which fell to the Achaeans in 1200 BC.

Iron Swords Homer describes the heroic age of the Achaean warriors, after which an unprecedented dark age awaited them.At that time, a group of fierce invaders came from the north, and the descendants of Menelaus, Agamemnon and Odysseus were brutally defeated.These invaders came to be known as the Dorians.The Greek they spoke is called the Dorian dialect, which is distinct from the Ionian, Aeolian, and Acadian dialects, as well as from the Greek dialects that are very widespread in other regions.As the Dorians entered the Greek peninsula, people began to use iron swords and swords, but the fine metal processing skills declined, and the shapes, patterns, and textures of bottles and containers became simpler. People began to like to wear a new type of robe. Pins fastened to the large sleeves of the toga.Around 1100 BC, there was a glimmer of hope in the Iron Age of Greece due to the invasion of the Dorians. The early Greeks changed the traditional skill of casting swords from bronze.Of course, while civilization progresses, traditional skills and civilization are inevitably destroyed to a certain extent.

The Wisdom of the Greeks Nowadays, it is difficult for people to tell what kind of people the Greeks are.The only thing that is certain is that the Greeks were a mixed race of many peoples, and that they lived independently in many groups.Since the language of the Greeks is directly related to the Aryans, who spoke Sanskrit, and the Iranians, who spoke Persian, it can be assumed that the Greeks were distantly related to them.Later, the Greeks thought they were the descendants of Heron and called themselves "Heronites".They also believed that the land they lived in was the land of the Herons, and they called it "Heras".

Based on this, it is very necessary to distinguish Helen from Helen of Troy.The Greeks remembered Heron as the Jews remembered Abraham.It can be seen that Herron's status in the eyes of the Greeks is very high.

The Greeks made great contributions to human civilization.Most of today's ideas about poetry, philosophy, and drama come from Greece; simply changed Greek letters are the letters we use now; the geometric theorems deduced and calculated by Greek scholars are still used by us; democratic politics and psychology, etc. Greek words, we still use today, and even sports such as "marathon" and "Olympic" show the high wisdom of ancient Greece.

[-]. Commercial culture and colonies

It would be wrong to think that ancient Greece was limited to the Greek peninsula.From 1200 BC to 1000 BC, the Greeks crossed the Aegean Sea and expanded their influence to Troy and other parts of Asia Minor.Soon after, between 750 BC and 550 BC, they established cities on the shores of the Black Sea.In places such as the southern Mediterranean coast, western Italy, France, and Spain, culture and commerce expanded with the expansion of colonies, just like ancient Greece.

East Greece East Greece includes the Greek peninsula, the Aegean Sea and its surrounding islands, and the coast of Asia Minor.Here lived Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians.Although they all belonged to the Greeks, for a long time the Ionian cities dominated Greek commerce and culture.

The great cities of the Ionians were on the continent of Asia Minor. The Ionians had ten cities in total, and they also owned neighboring islands such as Samos and Chios.The island of Samos was almost directly facing the mouth of the Meander River, and the island of Chios, which was farther north, faced the River Hermus.The cities and towns of the Ionians contributed significantly to the development of ancient Greek civilization.The reasons for the development of urban culture can be attributed to two aspects: first, the local mild climate, vast plains, and numerous rivers are conducive to the development of planting; The ancient culture inherited from Sopotamia and Syria completed the integration of Greek culture and non-Greek culture, which greatly enriched cultural life.The brilliant cultural brilliance of Ionia naturally also drives the cultural development of cities in the Aegean Sea and the Greek Peninsula, such as Athens.

Exceptional Miletus Miletus is representative of the outstanding city of the Ionians in Asia Minor.The history of the city bears witness to everything that happened in the past.Miletus near the mouth of the Meander River in Asia Minor was relatively prosperous before the arrival of the Greeks.Between 1200 and 1000 BC, the Ionians landed and occupied the city.They killed men, married and gave birth to local women, and established their own new city, Miletus.They established a colony here, and Miletus soon became a huge trading center, which greatly promoted the local economic and cultural development.

Around the 8th century BC, Miletus's ships had entered the Black Sea to engage in trade and colonization activities, and established trade relations with Egypt.They even established a Miletus trading post at the mouth of the Nile in 700 BC.Their influence also extended farther west, establishing many cities in southern Italy.Sybaris is one of the more famous cities, rich and prosperous.Sybaris is famous for its people who are good at cooking and comfortable with themselves.Even today, the Sybarians are considered the epitome of luxury.

The Milesians carried Egyptian and Greek goods to the west coast of Italy via Sybaris, crossing the mouth of the Tiber and going deep into Etruria.The greatness of Miletus is not only because of its wealth, but also because of its prosperous culture, the use of art and its powerful navy.Thales (640-546 BC), who was promoted by the Greeks as the head of the Seven Sages, was a Miletus.He studied geometry in Egypt, and he passed that knowledge on to the Greeks, and the Greeks brought it on to the world.His students made Miletus a center of philosophy and science, laying a solid foundation for the development of Athenian philosophical thought.In addition, Miletus is also a famous art center, especially the architecture and sculpture are excellent.To stimulate trade, the Greeks minted money in Ionia, and using money was a top priority for the economy.

The cities of the Ionians and the Aeolians were the cradle of Greek literature, and the island of Lesvos lived one of the greatest poetesses of all time, she was Sappho, so famous that Plato called her For the "tenth muse".

Both Euboea and Corinth had many powerful opponents in terms of commercial trade and colonial scrambles.Chalsis and Eritrea on the island of Euboea were inhabited by a large number of Ionians, and there were many Dorians in the city of Corinth in the strait near the Greek peninsula.Syracuse on the island of Sicily was the largest colony of Corinth.The Euboeans are good at fighting, they are both warriors and sailors.They fought in phalanxes, forming a solid wall of shields and spears, and the enemy had little chance of winning unless they were very good.

The Greek colonies everywhere are collectively referred to as Western Greece, including southern Italy, France, and the coasts of Spain and surrounding islands, such as Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica.Because of Greece's vast colonies in southern Italy and Sicily, it is often referred to as "Greater Greece".

The settlements of the Greeks surrounded the entire Black Sea to form the Black Sea Circle, so that the Miletus called their city the mother and ancestor of more than 70 cities on the southern shore of the Black Sea.

[-]. Sparta and its army

A Contrast In our minds, nothing could be more poignant than the contrast between the advanced trading cities of Io Neilan and the oppressive training camps of Sparta.Militarism and oligarchy gave birth to the unfortunate experiment of Sparta.Militarism is centered on the worship of war; oligarchy is the sword of rule in the hands of a privileged few.After the Trojan War, the Dorians invaded Greece and destroyed the palaces of Menelaus and Helen. Some Dorian warriors settled down in the Olotas River Valley and became local conquerors and masters.The natives became servants or serfs, and they occupied the best land.Here a new town was born, in other words, a city composed of a collection of villages.It has no protective walls, only people with iron swords protecting the city, and here is their capital - Sparta.

The "good men" of Sparta As the population increased, more land was expropriated by the Spartan aristocracy.The government of this "aristocracy" was made up of "the best men," another Greek word that could be applied to the ruling class.This kind of good man politics is exactly the same as oligarchy, which is the rule of a few people. However, in "good man politics", it is often composed of people of noble origin.These people think highly of themselves and think they are the "best people".

The nobles who conquered and robbed Sparta, the lords of Sparta, abandoned the practice of cities like Miletus and many others sending their surplus population to distant colonies.They tried to solve the land shortage problem by plundering the lands of the neighboring Greeks, Messinians and other neighbors.In the war for land, the Messinians made desperate resistance, but in the end they lost their land, lost their freedom, and fell into the miserable situation of serfs.

There was a time when culture and luxury were all the rage among Sparta's wealthy landowners, famed for their hunting, hospitality, and beautiful women.In the 7th century BC, the Messinians and several federations rose up to attack and made a bloody resistance, which completely shook the foundation of Sparta.Although the resistance was crushed, the war brought the terror of death to the Spartans.In the long years to come, this horrible haze has always hung over Sparta, and military training and war have become an integral part of their lives.

Spartan training When a baby is born, the right of life and death is in the hands of the elders of the city.If he is weak or crippled, take him to the mountains and leave him there to die.Healthy children, while growing up, boys are subjected to a brutal flogging once a year to develop their ability to endure pain.The grown men did not live at home, but stayed in the barracks, ready for war.Girls are required to undergo rigorous physical training to enhance their physical fitness and high expectations are placed on them to pass on their physical fitness from generation to generation.

The Helots and the Piriaces cultivated lands inhabited by many serfs, called helots.These Hilo people are actually the slaves of the lord. Although his lord cannot buy or sell them, he still manipulates their personal freedom and prevents them from moving freely.Around the territory of the Spartans, there were about a hundred towns, all of which were subordinate to the Spartans.Those who lived in towns were called Piriaces, which means "people who live around".The Piriaces could mine and do business, but they could not hold positions in the city-state government.They must help the Spartans unconditionally, guard the Hilos inside, and defend against invaders outside.Piriaces and Hilos can be called up at any time to assist in combat.

The impact on civilization Sparta's iron and blood system made it the main fighting force in Greece, and the name "Sparta" became synonymous with strict discipline and strong endurance of pain.However, the cultural level of Greece has become the weak link of Sparta.A king once boasted arrogantly that Sparta did not want to learn anything from other nations.Ultimately, this headstrong system led to stagnation, weakness and degradation of Sparta.

Although the Peloponnesian League came before the disintegration of the city-state, Sparta's military power and combat capabilities also had a glorious period.It began to establish military cooperation with its warlike neighbors, and by the end of the 6th century BC, it had successfully formed alliances with most of its neighbors in southern Greece.This military alliance led by Sparta was known as the Peloponnesian League.

Thrace, a northern Sparta In fact, the real opponent of the alliance at that time was Thrace.Thrace is to the north of Greece what Sparta is to the south of Greece.The nobles of Thrace owned the largest and richest plain in all Greece.It is not inferior to Sparta in terms of geography, and Thrace also has an alliance.In addition, like Sparta, Thrace was also ruled by lords who owned serfs and made little contribution to civilization. In comparison, Thrace's cavalry was stronger.

[-]. ATHENS AND ITS LAWS

Another comparison between the two cities of Sparta and Ionia mentioned above is, in many respects, also applicable to Sparta and Athens.If you want to ask among all the city-states in ancient Greece, which city-state has made the greatest contribution to enriching human life, it is undoubtedly Athens.However, the Athenians were also very good fighters.

When was the ideal age of an ideal city-state Greece?That was when the city-state system was implemented, and Athens was an ideal city-state.One of the greatest Greek philosophers once said this: "What is the number of people that an ideal city-state should contain? It should be equivalent to the number of people that an orator can organize within the scope of his ability. "And his point of view is also recognized by other ancient Greek writers. They believe that if all citizens in a city-state can meet and gradually get acquainted, and then actively participate in civic and religious ceremonies, and go to public theaters with enthusiasm, there is no need to worry about it." It is admirable to praise the temples and public buildings of the city-states generously, and to love their cities with great enthusiasm.

Why are typical cities always built in groups around mountains and rocks?Because the top of the mountain is a natural fortress, it is easy to defend but difficult to attack, and it is easy to build various fortifications to resist the invasion of foreign enemies. The reason is actually that simple.Thus, hilltops or castles formed the earliest cities (polis in Greek).As the living area of ​​the city continues to expand and gradually spread to farther places around the hills, the central high part of the city is full of buildings, which is called the Acropolis (Greek is acropolis, originally referring to "top of the city" or "in the city"). highest place").

A Greek country is usually just a city-state, and a city-state that includes only a city and two to three hundred miles of cultivated land around it is a typical city-state.If citizens stand on the city-state's acropolis and look out into the distance, they can have a panoramic view of the whole country.To tell the truth, very few Greek city-states had a radius of more than ten miles.

Another characteristic of the typical city-state is exclusivity.Citizenship is generally passed down from father to son, that is, hereditary; foreigners are not allowed to marry citizens, own their own land, or participate in various religious ceremonies.Citizenship is a privilege that makes them proud.All cities have their own special male (female) gods to protect them.For example, Hera, Apollo and Athena, a girl warrior with gray eyes holding a spear and wearing a strong helmet, are responsible for defending Argos, Apollonia and Athens respectively.

One of the typical Greek city-states is Athens.

Early Athens Who would have thought that Athens, now known as the Acropolis, was just a small castle built on the rugged rocks of Attica in ancient times.It's mostly rugged rocky surroundings, and it rarely rains.The inhabitants of most ancient Greek city-states were mixed races, and so were the Athenians, at least linguistically, though they were mostly Ionians.

Before the 8th century BC, there were twelve small city-states around Attica, and Athens was the main one.At that time, however, the whole of Attica was less than a thousand square miles.All the towns of Attica were united before 700 BC, and their ancestors moved to Athens, thus becoming the later Athenians.

The laws of Dracula. Until 621 B.C., the people could only obey the conventions stated and interpreted by the aristocracy, because the laws of Athens were not yet written.Since the early kings were driven out by the aristocracy, Athens formed aristocratic politics.

Why do farmers and workers feel dissatisfied and demand change?Because they are oppressed and deprived of even any voice in politics.Thus, in 621 BC, Dragu, one of the Archons, made the law expressly written to meet the demands of farmers and workers.His code, like most codes, was harsh, yet he made the laws known to all the people, so it was a step towards justice and democracy.

Why did Athens develop so fast in industry and trade, and began to use gold and silver coins?Because Athens' industry and trade developed rapidly.Athens not only sold exquisite vases, but also exported wine and olive oil.Ships from Athens passed through Egypt, Cyprus and the Black Sea, and at the same time brought grain back to Athens.Exquisite woolen cloaks, bronzes, cups and bottles came from Miletus, Chalsis and Corinth respectively, and many of these luxuries could only be enjoyed by the wealthy aristocratic class.There were many unfortunate farmers in Attica, who were deeply in debt because the import of grain caused the price of agricultural products to fall, and after losing their land, they became tenant farmers in the fields of the rich.To make matters worse, some of them could not repay their debts, and in desperation had to mortgage themselves to the creditors, and they or their children became debt slaves unfortunately.

Solon's reforms In 594 BC, the popular military leader Solon was elected consul.Although he himself is rich, he sympathizes with the poor and has always pursued a fair society.He summoned up a lot of courage to carry out reforms that relieved some of the suffering of the poor.He freed all debt slaves, and canceled all mortgages on land, and at the same time expressly prohibited all creditors from occurring in the future.But he did not support the common people as thoroughly and thoroughly as some of the poor hoped.Indeed, Solon's reforms eliminated many contradictions and allowed commoners to have a small amount of political rights, but most of the political power was still firmly in the hands of the aristocracy, and the ruling committee and other meetings were composed of them.

Political parties and dictatorship Despite Solon's reforms and well-meaning advice, unrest in Attica was inevitable. The "Party of the Coast" was made up of sailors, fishermen, potters, and other workers united; ", organized by those shepherds, herdsmen and small farmers who have resentment in their hearts.The "Mountain Party" is led by a young man named Pisistratu, who is a very ambitious young man.

The followers of Pisistratus heard his good promise and made themselves tyrants, that is, he seized control of the city-state.In the next 30 years, like Athens, experienced many ups and downs.Although largely a military dictator, Pisistratus made numerous contributions to agriculture, art, and literature.Pisistratus knew that the Athenians had always believed in religion, so when people paid homage to the gods and goddesses, he used some means to make the ceremonies and festivals more grand and magnificent to win people's hearts.

Later, several sons of Pisistratus became the successor tyrants. Like their father, they also had the spirit of serving the public, and often increased the public welfare.But Sparta came to the aid of the Athenian nobles in 510 BC, and they were driven out, and Athens became an oligarchy again.

Even so, the democratic spirit of Athens grew up slowly under Cristiano's reform.Control was not long passed to the Coast Party, and their leader, Cristhenis, was at once the absolute legislator, who we may call the "Father of Greek Democracy."He extended citizenship to more people, made new, more democratic arrangements for the various races, created a council of representatives, and built an army on a more popular basis.In addition, he also formulated the "Pottery Expulsion Law".This word sounds a bit like the word "removal" in modern times, but it is more severe than removal.In the "Pottery Expulsion Law", if citizens think that anyone has caused harm to the city-state, they can vote to decide whether to exile that person.

(End of this chapter)