Taiping Dao at the end of the Han Dynasty

Chapter 18 Planting Beans in the Fields of Hebei
Spring is associated with the green sun, summer with the vermilion sun, autumn with the white sun, and winter with the dark sun. The scorching summer days of June are the busy season for summer sowing and a crucial time for agricultural work throughout the year.

Every year at the beginning of summer, from the imperial court in Luoyang to local prefectures and counties, and even villages, people would worship the sun god, also known as the Red Emperor of the South. The purpose of the worship was to pray for abundant sunshine, lush vegetation, and a bountiful harvest. This popular song used in the worship of the sun god also has a more famous name: "Zhu Ming." The reason why Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming Dynasty, chose "Ming" as the name of his dynasty originated from this.

"The Ming dynasty flourished, benefiting all things. The paulownia tree grew abundantly, without any decline. It blossomed and bore fruit, prosperous and thriving. The fields were fertile, and all spirits offered sacrifices. Vast sacrifices were built, solemn and unforgettable. If the gods grant gracious forgiveness, may its legacy endure forever..."

Villagers toiled in the fields, and field songs echoed under the summer sun. These songs ranged from ancient, obscure, and difficult-to-understand ritual chants to more accessible folk songs that guided agricultural production. In an era of low literacy rates, folk songs were the only means of transmitting knowledge and experience in the countryside; they were the farmers' "culture."

In the fields of his hometown of Julu, Zhang Chengfu, along with his children, hummed a farmers' song, guided the oxen as they sowed beans in the fields. Farming was never an easy task, but it was a busy work full of hope.

"Spring breaks early, beans must be dried well. Oxen plow straight across, harrow flat without wrinkles."

Plant three to five seeds, not too deep or too sparse. Space them about three feet apart, leaving enough room for two feet between each row.

Planting beans is also called "planting beans," and it's important to select the best varieties of beans, both large and small. Soybeans are yellow soybeans, while adzuki beans are red beans, a type of red bean. As for black beans, the varieties were not yet mature at this time and only gradually became popular during the Northern and Southern Dynasties.

June is no longer the Spring Equinox; it's already the Lesser Heat (Xiaoshu). Wheat-soybean intercropping is an arrangement where soybeans are planted in the wheat fields after the wheat harvest, utilizing the residual moisture in the stubble to obtain another crop of beans. The advantages of this "planting beans after Lesser Heat" practice are obvious: two harvests a year, resulting in higher grain yields!
Although the season for planting beans differs, the principles in the folk songs remain the same. Similarly, in the folk tradition of Jizhou, there is another simple proverb about planting summer beans after summer wheat.

"Beans sprout at the summer solstice; beans form clumps at the beginning of autumn..."

"Moo! Moo!"

The ox let out a low moo, seemingly because the children were too short and hadn't positioned themselves correctly to support it, causing them to bump its soft belly.

"Good ox! Plow the field obediently...steady, slow down, plow the ground deep...walk straight, don't lean!"

Zhang Chengfu whispered something close to the ox's ear, patted its head, and soothed it for a while before it continued plowing the field. Behind the ox, a wooden plow with a long handle was attached, turning over the subsoil as the ox moved. This wooden plow was a traditional plow with a wooden frame, fitted with an iron plowshare and sides. The design of the plow varied depending on whether it was a single-ox or double-ox plow.

The Jizhou region has flat terrain and deep soil, making it ideal for animal-powered plowing. This plowing method genuinely increases crop yields. Sometimes, the increase in production can even reach 20% compared to fields that haven't been deeply plowed!
In the manors of powerful families at that time, who owned many oxen, they would typically use a two-oxen plow, similar to those unearthed from Han Dynasty tomb murals. Two strong oxen would pull the plow side by side, with a crossbar yoke on their shoulders, working together to pull a single plow. The farmer would then assist from behind, making the work much easier. With sufficient oxen strength, they could deeply plow hard soil, bringing the deeper, fertile soil to the surface and increasing soil fertility. Deep plowing also exposed buried insect eggs, which could be killed by sunlight, reducing pest infestations.

When there is only one ox, the only option is the single-ox plow. This plow has a long, straight handle and a yoke that is inserted vertically into the crossbar. It looks very simple, but you have to control the direction yourself when operating it, which is actually more complicated than a two-ox plow.

In ordinary small households, with dozens of relatives, it's usually possible to scrape together enough money for one ox. The vast majority of poor farming families don't even own a single ox. Without an ox, they have to plow the fields by hand, requiring much more effort, but they can't plow very deep.

This was, of course, unavoidable. The common people knew the benefits of oxen for plowing, but they simply couldn't afford them. The price of oxen, a means of production, mentioned in the *Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art*, was "two oxen, worth five thousand," meaning one ox cost 2500 copper coins. At that time, a bushel of grain cost only a few dozen coins, and an ox, converted into grain, typically cost over 60 bushels. Where could ordinary people possibly save up so much money?
Even slightly wealthier farmers, despite owning oxen, couldn't survive a famine if their grain reserves ran low. They were forced to sell their oxen at a loss to buy more grain from wealthy farmers at inflated prices. This mirrored the surge in bankrupt farmers in rural areas during recent years' disasters. Under the combined weight of natural and man-made calamities, millions of farmers along the banks of the Yellow River are rapidly descending into abject poverty. Conversely, powerful clans and wealthy families of the Han Dynasty are rapidly expanding their influence during these years of hardship, exploiting the common people.

"The sun shines brightly, plowing the fields... Oxen are the most important help in farming! The strength of one ox is equivalent to that of three or five strong men. And it can live on grass, producing forty or fifty pounds of dung every day. Cow dung can be dried and used as fuel, or it can be composted to fertilize the fields..."

As Zhang Chengfu plowed the field, he spoke to the children around him. There were only a dozen or so oxen in the village. The older boys had to pull the plow themselves, their sun-reddened faces glistening with sweat. The younger boys followed behind, bending over and sowing seeds between the furrows.

At this time, the methods of sowing in the fields include precision sowing methods such as hill sowing and row sowing, as well as broadcast sowing. Broadcast sowing is usually used for crops with small grains, such as wheat and rice, and is only used by wealthy families with large landholdings. Since the soybean seeds being planted now are larger and more precious, ordinary people must sow them carefully.

Just like the folk song goes, "Sow three or five seeds, about three feet apart in each row." The boy in front supports the ox, while the busy children behind plow in rows three feet apart, planting three to five beans in each shallow furrow. Then they smear the soil with their feet or cover it with a harrow. A harrow is a farming tool similar to a large wooden comb or board, used to break up the soil and compact it to retain moisture; in other words, it helps to create furrows.

This method of plowing and sowing simultaneously improves efficiency and ensures that the seeds are evenly distributed in the ground. Before sowing, the beans must be soaked overnight for better germination.

"Come closer, listen to me... When you're applying pressure points, remember this saying: 'Plant soybeans of different sizes; in fertile fields, plant sparsely; in poor fields, plant densely.'"

"Master Zhang, what does this mean?"

"This means that soybeans are planted more sparsely on fertile land and more densely on barren land."

"Huh? Why is that?"

Hearing this, Zhang Chengfu smiled, pulled the slow-moving old ox back, and lifted his clothes to wipe the sweat from his brow. This action was somewhat out of character for a teacher in Confucian tradition, but it was perfectly fitting in the rural setting. He smiled and pointed to the bean pod on the ground, patiently explaining.

"In fertile soil, beans grow tall and large. Planting them sparsely encourages branching and increases yield. In barren soil, beans grow short and small. Planting them densely ensures a bountiful harvest through a larger number of plants. Sparse planting increases yield per plant, while dense planting increases quantity..."

"Hmm, this is a very good arithmetic problem! Let me think about it carefully, and when I get back I'll give you a few problems to do, and I'll also add some problems on calculating the area of ​​farmland!"

"Ah! Arithmetic problems? Can I skip them...?"

Upon hearing the arithmetic problems, the children exchanged bewildered glances, many looking troubled. For them, arithmetic was the most difficult subject. Only a small number of the brighter ones showed anticipation in their eyes. However, when arithmetic was combined with real agricultural production, it gained practical value in guiding their lives. The children understood that learning these things was truly useful. After this point was explained, the children lowered their heads and continued to cultivate diligently. "Phew! Finally, this acre is finished. If we had a seed drill, the effort spent cultivating would be at least half!"

"Master Zhang, what is a seed drill?"

"It's a labor-saving farming tool that allows you to sow seeds by yourself with the help of oxen!"

"If there are no oxen, is the seed drill still useful?"

"Well, a little bit, I guess!"

Zhang Chengfu shook his head, sighed softly, and went to the next acre to continue sowing. Throughout the entire estate, and during his daily preaching trips to the countryside, he had never seen a real seed drill. He had only heard about this "new-style farming tool" from his senior brother, Ma Yuanyi, who said it existed in the estates of prominent families.

In this era, the seed drill, a three-legged planter, had indeed been invented. The seed drill could be mounted behind the plow and pulled by oxen to simultaneously open furrows, sow seeds, and cover them with soil. This greatly reduced the farmer's workload, eliminating the need for them to bend down and dig for seeds themselves.

Clearly, this breakthrough in agricultural technology either stems from the fact that it is not yet fully developed and is too costly, or it is due to the fact that established families are unwilling to share their "core technologies." More likely, it is a combination of both.

The improvement of agricultural productivity is always a spiraling, tortuous process. When the terrible wars of the Jin Dynasty swept across China, agricultural productivity in the north declined sharply. Various agricultural techniques were lost, irrigation facilities were destroyed, and yields per mu were reduced by at least 30% to 40% compared to a certain year in the Eastern Han Dynasty. This sharp decline in agricultural production, coupled with the cold of the Little Ice Age, permanently lowered the population carrying capacity of the Central Plains, reducing the northern population by more than half!

At that time, wheat-soybean rotation was not observed throughout the north; only millet or beans were grown in a single season. It wasn't until the Sui and Tang dynasties unified the country that the north recovered to the productivity level of the late Han dynasty and began to rise again, ushering in a new period of great prosperity for the north!

As the sun rose and set, Zhang Chengfu and the boys' sweat fell on the fields of Jizhou, Hebei, mingling with the planted beans. They only rested for an hour under the shade of a tree at midday, solving two arithmetic problems.

"I work at sunrise and rest at sunset. I dig wells to drink from and till the fields to eat from. What power does the emperor have over me?"

The clear, melodious singing rose and fell, like the peaceful mooing of cattle. After Zhang Chengfu finished planting his two acres of land, he looked back and saw the sun was already setting; it was time for dinner. He wiped his sweat again with his clothes; the sweat on his face left salty marks, faintly stinging, perhaps from the sun. He looked at the group of children, their faces flushed from the sun, looking every bit like farmers' children. He smiled and asked...

"How is it? Is farming hard?"

"It's not hard! Teacher Zhang, I've been helping my family farm since I was six! I'm thirteen now..."

"I started helping out in the fields when I was five years old!"

"I was four years old... uh... I was watching over silkworms and feeding them leaves! Silkworms could spin silk, which the tax collectors sent by the government would collect, and it would amount to a good sum of money!..."

The children eagerly answered, explaining that this kind of hardship in the fields was familiar to them, and something countless farmers at the bottom of society did their entire lives. Those accustomed to farm work didn't perceive it as particularly difficult. The real hardship came when the government tax collectors came down, demanding not only rent but also other taxes and levies!
Of all these, the demand for "taxation fees" was the most terrifying. Rural farmers severely lacked access to copper coins. Every year when these fees were collected, grain prices plummeted throughout the village. Merchants and wealthy households with copper coins would try to drive down grain prices as much as possible, extracting even more money from the farmers who sold their grain for cash. Farmers were forced to sell their grain at rock-bottom prices, otherwise they wouldn't be able to pay the "taxation fees," and the penalties from the government would be even more dreadful. If tax officials used this as an excuse to their advantage, farmers would at least have to sell their cattle and land, and at worst, their families would be ruined and their lives destroyed…

"Yes, that's right! Farming isn't hard work; it's sowing hope. With hope, how can life be hard? The real hardship is having the hope you've painstakingly planted forcibly taken away! What is imperial power to me? It's nothing more than a beautiful fantasy from thousands of years ago..."

Zhang Chengfu smiled and shook his head, no longer mentioning it. He tied the ox to the tree, watched the golden sunset, and sang the remaining verses of a bean-planting folk song, as if looking forward to the harvest a few months later.

"After the rain, when the seedlings first sprout, weed them once. If a dry wind blows, get the hoe ready as soon as possible."

In two months, the seedlings are as small as a palm; hoe the roots and mound them firmly. In March, the vines grow stronger; guard against dew and waterlogging.

This is the busy period after seedlings emerge. Weeding is extremely tiring and laborious work, as weeds are seemingly impossible to eradicate completely. Each time weeding, soil is mounded around the base to prevent lodging. If there is too much rainfall, drainage must be maximized to prevent flooding in low-lying areas. Of course, in Jizhou, which is currently experiencing frequent droughts, this is a welcome but unfortunate situation.

"When the flowers bloom, butterflies flutter around; when the pods form, do not disturb them. If you see insects biting the leaves, pinch them off before it's too late."

The sheaths are full in April, the sun is low in May. The dried beans rustle, the grains move; it's time to bring them in.

When the beans grow and flower, butterflies will flutter in, creating the most beautiful scenery in the fields. Various pests will also emerge, all of which will have to be removed by hand by the farmers. After more than four months from planting, it will be harvest time for the beans. Birds flying in the sky and mice burrowing in the ground will all be drawn by the fragrance.

Beans are relatively easier to eat; the beans are too large and encased in pods, so most birds won't eat them. But the aroma of ripe wheat attracts flocks of birds. To maximize the harvest, farmers have to sleep by the fields, enduring mosquito bites and constantly shooing away birds and animals. Beans take even longer to grow; until the seedlings completely wither, a slightly larger harvest can be obtained. The harvest in the fields is accumulated little by little in this way.

Cut the vines and dust them off; thresh and stir the threshing floor frequently. Sift and winnow them clean; store them in the granary to prevent rats from gnawing on them.

Leftover beans are good for seed, to be planted again next year. Generations have grown beans, each grain a result of hard work.

Under the setting sun, Zhang Chengfu smiled, and the children's laughter rang out clearly. The old ox mooed deeply, and even the cicadas chirped merrily. As the farmers' song ended, the final words were a simple blessing: May the fields yield a bountiful harvest, and may the granaries be overflowing with beans and grain!
(End of this chapter)