Taiping Dao at the end of the Han Dynasty

Chapter 10: How Did the Han Army Fight?

The summer solstice in the fifth month of the lunar calendar in Jizhou is not particularly hot. The cicadas chirping in the shade of the trees are not noisy. The Book of Songs has a wonderful description of it: "The cicadas chirp softly." And "softly" (huì) is a clear, low sound, with the faint glow of starlight. It is like a new shoot sprouting a few inches on a grave mound, or like children sitting quietly under the shade of a tree, making people smile as they look at it.

"When the mind is calm, the breath is clear; when the breath is clear, the spirit is at peace; when the spirit is at peace, the Way comes..."

"When the body remains still, the mind remains focused, and the vital energy circulates throughout the body, one can connect with heaven and earth and communicate with the divine..."

Zhang Cheng walked past a group of disciples sitting cross-legged, his hands hanging at his sides, reciting sentences from the "Chapter on Nourishing Qi" in the *Taiping Jing*. Some of the boys squeezed their eyes shut, some couldn't help but peek, some tensed their bodies, and some swayed slightly from side to side.

Seeing the children's performance in sitting quietly and entering the path, Gao Daonu shook his head and sighed inwardly.

"In Taoist cultivation, one achieves minor success only when one's inner energy is abundant and one's spirit and body are inseparable... When Master taught us, he only taught a few people at a time? At most three to five disciples, plus a dozen or so followers. Chengfu, on the other hand, teaches hundreds at a time? How many of them can possibly become truly accomplished..."

Despite these thoughts, Gao Daonu still earnestly worked with his disciples, who were skilled in meditation, to carefully adjust the postures of the boys. Zhang Chengfu looked around, thought for a moment, and then switched to vernacular Chinese, explaining it in detail once more.

"The first thing in meditation is to calm the mind. Only by calming the mind can one cultivate a pure energy within. Since it is pure energy, the breath should be light, slow, and long. Gradually relax until you forget yourself and enter a state of tranquility, and your mind will naturally be calmed..."

"Be calm, patient, diligent, and free from unrealistic fantasies. Sit upright, focusing your mind on the Great Dao and the sun. Let your thoughts accompany your breath, slowly extending from your lower abdomen throughout your body, subtly and effortlessly. Do this for a hundred days, and you will naturally develop a sensation of Qi, like a faint warmth..."

"Don't rush, meditate for an hour first. It's okay if you fall asleep, as long as you can calm down!..."

Zhang Chengfu walked around once, then around again. After three or four laps, most of the children, their eyes half-closed, quieted down as the cicadas began to sing. Only then did he smile and walk towards the edge of the woods. There, Liu Gong, with an envious expression, bowed slightly and asked earnestly.

"Is this the introductory training for the Way of Peace? Can I also practice it?"

“Liu Gong, this is just the most basic meditation in Taoism. There are no major secrets. It is just that you need to enter a state of tranquility and nourish your body. All of us disciples started out in this way under the guidance of our great teacher.”

At this point, Zhang Chengfu paused, looked at Liu Gong who couldn't wait to sit down, and patiently explained again.

"This practice of entering a state of tranquility is best started when one is a young boy. Young boys have less experience, pure minds, and are more likely to enter a state of quiet contemplation without being disturbed by distractions. Furthermore, their primordial yang energy is still intact, and their vital essence is abundant; they can develop a sense of qi within a hundred days. This sense of qi gradually spreads from the tailbone. If one practices for three to five years, a sensation will also arise in the lower abdomen, and the flow of qi throughout the body will be smooth. This is considered a minor success in foundation building. The so-called 'foundation building' is laying the most basic foundation for Taoist cultivation, and then slowly nurturing it. This kind of Taoist cultivation is inherently a long-term process, like water dripping on a stone until it wears away; it's not something that can be achieved overnight..."

"Even if one reaches the Foundation Establishment stage, one won't gain any supernatural powers or spells. At most, one's spirit will be more abundant, energy more plentiful, and the body lighter and healthier. Hmm, fewer illnesses, and longer lifespan!..."

Upon hearing that there were no "supernatural powers or spells," Liu Gong's face immediately showed disappointment, and his interest waned. His desire for enlightenment vanished, replaced by worldly desires. He pondered for a moment, then spoke meaningfully.

"Chengfu, you've trained these boys using military methods; you must have some considerations, hoping to organize them into an army. It seems our Taiping Dao has grand ambitions. If we could have an elite army, we would surely be able to display our talents!..."

"In that case, why not teach them fist fighting, spear fighting, staff fighting, bow fighting, and sword fighting? These real martial arts skills are best learned from childhood! Although I am not very talented, I can still teach them some basic military techniques!..."

Upon hearing Liu Gong's self-recommendation, Zhang Chengfu gave a wry smile, pointed to his empty stomach, and shook his head.

"If possible, I'd also like to have you, a veteran soldier, teach them proper martial arts, including fist fighting, spear fighting, and archery... But with so many mouths to feed, the temple's food supply is already insufficient, and those hungry teenagers cry out for food every night. If they were to learn military skills as well, food consumption would probably double, and Second Senior Brother Tang Zhou would definitely eat me alive!"

"So, having no other choice, I can only teach them meditation first. Meditation calms the mind and cultivates character, which can also help nourish the body, temper the will, and develop composure. Once we have enough food, I'll try to teach them martial arts according to their individual needs..."

Upon hearing this practical explanation, Liu Gong was speechless for a moment, lowering his head in silence. Even Zhang Jiao's disciples in the Way of Peace lived such a frugal life, which was indeed quite different from the behavior of the scions of powerful and wealthy families. Zhang Chengfu thought for a moment, then smiled and said...

"Peace and prosperity! However, Liu Gong, since you are familiar with the ranks of the Han Dynasty's imperial army, could you tell everyone about the organization of the Han Dynasty's imperial army and how they fight?"

"What is the organization of the government troops? And how do they fight?... "

Upon hearing this, Liu Gong thought for a moment, then scratched his head and said.

"Government troops are all based on 'units'. In Liangzhou, the largest government troops with fixed numbers are 'units'. A 'unit' is about 800 to 1,000 men, mainly depending on how many 'units' it has. If a 'unit' has a captain, the 'unit captain' is the highest-ranking officer. If there is no captain, the 'military commander' is the highest-ranking officer. For example, the Hanyang unit I was in before only had four units with 800 men, and the military commander was the highest-ranking officer..."

"And below the 'Bu' (部) is the 'Qu' (曲). A 'Qu' consists of two hundred men, the highest being the 'Qu Chang' (曲长), also called a 'Jun Hou' (军侯). I was in the 'Longxian Qu' (陇县曲), which was stationed in Longxian. Below the 'Longxian Qu' were four 'Tun' (屯), each with fifty men, the highest being called the 'Tun Zhang' (屯长), who would have a garrison fort and farmland. But because we were from Guandong (关东), the Qu Chang, who came from a Guanxi (关西) aristocratic family, abandoned us in the poorest and most remote military garrison. That garrison was desolate, with little water, and it was called 'Jiequan Tun' (街泉屯). And not far from us was 'Jiequan Ting' (街泉亭)..."

Upon hearing this, Zhang Chengfu's expression suddenly changed, and he asked a question.

"Wait!... Liu Gong, you just said you were farming in Long County, and the vicinity is Jiequanting? Jieting?... "

"Huh? Chengfu, you've heard of that wretched place? It is indeed called Jieting. It's a terrain where two mountains sandwich a river; to the west are the continuous Longshan Mountains, and to the east is Longguan Pass... The terrain there is very treacherous, and the soil is extremely barren. The wheat grown in the military farms doesn't grow very well; they rely entirely on military rations sent from Longxian County. But of the two liters of wheat they receive daily, half is always embezzled..."

"Are there Qiang people in this Jiequan Pavilion... in this Long County?"

"Yes! Throughout Longdi, Qiang tribes spring up everywhere, like grass sprouting from the ground. Many places there are water-scarce and cold, unsuitable for farming or building military settlements. But the Qiang people can survive by herding and hunting. They dart from one mountain to another, roaming everywhere, and you can't kill them all. I heard they all come from the higher and wider mountains in the southwest!"

"The chieftain from Guanzhong always clamored to go to the higher, wider mountains and eradicate the Qiang people. But less than two years later, he was killed by a newly arrived Qiang with a single spear thrust. These Qiang always seemed to multiply with each battle; the newcomers were even more formidable and ferocious than the old ones..."

Liu Gong muttered about Jieting for a while, then about the Qiang people, clearly suffering greatly at their hands. After a long pause, he continued speaking.

"A platoon consists of five squads, each squad having ten men, headed by a squad leader. Ten men are divided into two teams, each team having five men, headed by a team leader. I've seen platoon leaders command troops in battle, but that's all I've seen. What I truly understand is the fighting of a squad of ten men… Chengfu, if you want me to talk about how the government troops fight, I can only describe how ten men specifically line up and fight!…"

"Alright! Then tell me how ten people fight!"

Zhang Chengfu readily nodded. He pointed to the children who were still meditating, then to Gao Daonu and himself, and said with a smile.

"Aiming too high is not a good thing. Right now, not only these young boys, but even Dao Nu and I are completely clueless about the specifics of military combat. Everyone is counting on you to explain the most basic principles of warfare!..."

"Ah! Okay! Then lend me nine people, and I'll prepare for two days and give you a demonstration!..."

Liu Gong's spirits lifted, and a look of joy appeared on his face.

"Two days later, I'll bring some men to demonstrate for you... the weaponry and tactics of a dozen men!..."

"Okay! It's a deal then!..."

The two high-fived in agreement. The cicadas chirped incessantly, but the children remained seated in meditation.

Two days later, in the same place, the children had formed large circles in groups, very orderly and disciplined. Pairs of curious eyes were all fixed on the center of the circle, where ten strong young disciples, led by Liu Gong, stood, along with the wooden weapons.

Although they were just a group of children, this was the first time Liu Gong had ever "lectured" in front of so many people. As a deserter, he had never imagined he would receive such treatment as a "teacher." He swallowed hard, and under Zhang Chengfu's encouraging gaze, he first picked up a long, forked branch. The branch had clearly been trimmed, one end sharpened, the other end hooked out horizontally. Then, Liu Gong earnestly held up the long branch he had personally sharpened and began to speak. "This is the most important weapon among the government army's infantry, the halberd. The tip of this halberd is used for thrusting; the hook is used for hooking! The entire iron halberd head is about a foot long. And where the halberd appears, it must be in the first rank of the battle line... The entire length of the halberd is a little over ten feet (2.5 meters)!"

The children's eyes were filled with curiosity as they saw this "long halberd" resembling a "tree branch." Zhang Chengfu, however, was very attentive, carefully examining every detail. At that time, one Han foot was only 23 centimeters, and ten feet was 2.3 meters. The halberd was about 2.5 meters long, not particularly long, but it was indeed a frontline weapon for the government troops.

"This is how the halberd is used: a horizontal thrust is a stab, a pullback is a hook... Kill! Kill!"

Liu Gong picked up the "halberd" and skillfully executed a horizontal thrust and a diagonal hook. These two simple, honed movements carried an invisible killing intent, causing the surrounding laborers to take a step back. Liu Gong glanced at the nearest laborers, handed them the "halberd," and then took an even longer wooden stick. This stick was more than two people tall, with one end sharply pointed, seemingly aiming to pierce the sky.

"This is the second most important weapon among the government army's infantry: the spear, also called a 'foot spear.' It has only one thrusting spearhead, but the spearhead is a full two feet long and is sharpened on both sides. Spearmen are usually positioned behind halberds as the second rank in the battle line, but if the halberd soldiers are killed, the spearmen can also serve as the first rank..."

"This spear is 3.5 meters long! The army also has 4.2-meter spears, which are for the rear ranks of spearmen during large-scale battles. When we fought the Qiang people in Liangzhou, we only had a few hundred men at most, so we didn't need 4.2-meter spears; 3.5 meters was enough..."

At this point, Liu Gong slammed the "spear" in his hand. Then, he gripped the "spear" tightly with both hands, raised his right hand high, and lowered his left hand slightly, thrusting downwards at an angle with both arms!
"kill!…"

With this fierce thrust, Zhang Chengfu's expression instantly turned grave. He seemed to see thousands upon thousands of government troops, raising a forest of spears, charging fiercely forward! Such an advancing spear line was likely something the Yellow Turban peasant army could not withstand…

"That's how you use a spear. There's only one move: thrust! And in battle formation, thrusting diagonally downwards with both arms raised high is the most powerful! No matter what kind of Qiang or Xianbei cavalry, once they're hit by this thrust, both man and horse will die on the battlefield!..."

Liu Gong patted his chest proudly. Before the invention of the stirrup, the light cavalry of the Qiang and Xianbei were indeed no match for the arrayed government troops. Liu Gong then raised the "spear" again, placing it next to the "halberd," and concluded.

"In short, use halberds to stop horses and spears to kill! Every ten men must have at least four halberdiers and four spearmen. And every soldier must learn to use both halberds and spears. If the halberdiers and spearmen in front are killed, the archers and crossbowmen behind them must take up their spears and halberds to take their place!"

"When we first entered the army, veterans of the Qiang campaign told us that no matter what, we had to maintain the battle line, like keeping a straight stick... If the stick bent too much in one place, it would snap in two! And that would basically be the end of that battle..."

At this point, Liu Gong shook his head and stopped talking. He was just following the example, repeating the teachings of those veterans. As for the truly fierce battles where the lines were breached, he hadn't encountered any in the small-scale skirmishes during the campaign against the Qiang. If he had, he probably wouldn't have made it back.

"You four, each with a 'halberd' or spear, stand in two rows... Hmm, too few people, just one row! Yes, that's it. The four 'halberds' in front, form a battle line..."

Liu Gong distributed four long branches and sticks, arranging the four strong men in a line. Then, he took out a wooden board and a wooden knife, introducing them one by one.

“This wooden plank is a ‘long shield’, used by sword and shield soldiers. The larger ones are three feet long, and the smaller ones are two feet long. Those smaller than two feet are ‘short shields’, which are tied to the left arm of the front-line halberdiers to block arrows… This wooden sword is a ‘ring-pommel sword’, also used by sword and shield soldiers.”

"The role of sword and shield soldiers in the government army is generally to cover the exposed flanks of the front ranks. Or, after the front-line halberdiers and spearmen have been broken through, they will move forward to block the attack. Or, if the enemy's arrow rain is too heavy, they will voluntarily stand at the forefront to provide cover... Of course, there are also elite Qiang soldiers recruited by the border troops, equipped with swords and shields, to serve as light infantry warriors for assaults..."

"And in a group of ten, there are usually two swordsmen and shieldmen, one on each side..."

As he spoke, Liu Gong took out two wooden planks and a wooden knife, placed them in the hands of two strong men, and arranged them on either side of the halberds and spears. Then, Liu Gong picked up a short broom, held it up somewhat awkwardly, and said earnestly.

"This is a crossbow... the third most important weapon in the government army, some even say the first... well, this is the mainstay five-stone crossbow, capable of shooting about 140 paces and penetrating leather armor. But these five-stone crossbow bolts are very expensive, costing several coins each! Besides the main five-stone crossbow, there are more three-stone crossbows, capable of shooting about 100 paces, and their bolts are half the price. Therefore, in daily battles, the army actually prefers to use the three-stone crossbow, for no other reason than to save money!..."

"A five-stone crossbow, capable of shooting 140 paces, can pierce leather armor?..."

Upon hearing the range and power of the five-stone crossbow, Zhang Chengfu remained silent, secretly alarmed. Undoubtedly, such long-range crossbows from the government army would be an unbearable and fatal blow to the peasant uprising army, which lacked armor and shields. And the proportion of crossbowmen in the government army was a staggering forty percent?

"You three, take these crossbows... There's not much to say about crossbowmen; it's much simpler than archery for us! Just get the angle and distance right, and keep shooting. Every soldier has to learn how to use the crossbow; if we encounter the swift Xianbei cavalry, we'll rely on crossbows to deal with them!..."

"Ten men per unit, four with halberds and spears, two with swords and shields, and four with bows and crossbows! This is the most common troop composition in the government army! The specific tactics usually involve halberdiers and spearmen forming the front, with bows and crossbowmen firing from behind. It's best to occupy high ground or hills and wait for the enemy to charge up and die. However, if the enemy has many infantry and few cavalry, sometimes the bows and crossbowmen can be sent forward to fire a few volleys first..."

"And if the army is large, reaching the size of a 'unit' of a thousand men, there will be auxiliary light cavalry, heavy cavalry, and even armored cavalry wearing horse armor on both sides. But how those cavalry charge, I don't know. I've never been a cavalryman, I've only seen them swaggering in front of infantry..."

As he spoke, Liu Gong placed three crossbows into the hands of the last three able-bodied men, then arranged them in the rear ranks of the spearmen and swordsmen. Afterward, he himself took a government army longbow, a genuine and well-maintained one-stone bow, and stood in the ranks of the crossbowmen, proudly concluding his speech.

"Peace and prosperity reign! As for what I hold in my hand now, it is a genuine bow, weighing four jin (approximately 22.5 kg)! It can shoot seventy paces and pierce leather armor... Although its range is shorter than that of a crossbow, it is far more accurate! It also shoots much faster! I have used this bow to kill two Qiang chieftains..."

"This bow and arrow is a truly difficult weapon to master! It takes at least three to five years of training to achieve any real proficiency! Therefore, while every squad of ten will have four archers, not every squad will have an elite archer like me!"

Liu Gongchang let out a long breath and finally gave a rough introduction to the most basic infantry combat of the government army, based on his personal military experience. Afterwards, he looked at the group of boys with wide, admiring eyes, straightened his back slightly, and then looked expectantly at Zhang Chengfu.

"Is what I said about 'bearing burdens' acceptable?"

"May Heaven bless you! Excellent, wonderful! I think you can also become the children's teacher!"

Zhang Chengfu nodded in agreement, quite affirmatively. After listening to Liu Gong's account, he had, for the first time, a clear image of the government army's tactics in battle formed in his mind. Only by knowing oneself and one's enemy can one, with weaker forces, seek the hard-won victory. And now, if the government army's well-trained troops were to face the newly risen Yellow Turban peasant army in this manner…

"Um…"

Zhang Chengfu remained silent for a moment, then shook his head and looked at the longbow in Liu Gong's hand. Looking at the war bow, he narrowed his eyes, suddenly feeling an inexplicable familiarity. Even though, in the past three years, he had never seen a war bow in the army, let alone touched one…

"Liu Gong, could I borrow this bow for a moment?"

"Chengfu, would you like to try this bow?"

Seeing Zhang Chengfu's gaze, Liu Gong smiled confidently and handed over the longbow in his hand.

"Peace and prosperity! This bow and arrow is different from halberds, spears, swords, and crossbows; it can't be mastered in a short time. If you want to learn, I can teach you slowly... By the way! This bow has great power, remember not to fire it without firing... Hmm?"

Liu Gong suddenly stopped talking and stared wide-eyed.

Zhang Chengfu stood with his front foot slightly forward and his back foot angled, instinctively adopting a windproof archery stance. Then, he held the bow upright in his left hand, his thumb and forefinger lightly touching the concave part of the bow handle, the thenar eminence naturally resting on the handle as if grasping an extension of his body. Next, he drew the string with his right hand, using a primitive technique of holding the arrow. And the 60-jin (approximately 30 catties) Han bow, weighing 1 shi (approximately 80 kg), was drawn slowly to his right ear, then the string was slowly released. He repeated this three times, each movement perfectly precise, as if etched from a mold!
"Wow! That strength? That precision? Chengfu, you've practiced archery since you were a child?..."

Incredulity was written all over Liu Gong's face. Only a true archer could see the countless hours of practice behind those few movements!
Zhang Chengfu drew the bow three times, but his left hand remained perfectly still. He slowly lowered the bow, savoring this incredible familiarity, a complex expression on his face, his eyes momentarily glazed over. After a long while, he looked into Liu Gong's eyes and whispered.

"Heaven above! I think... I can shoot arrows..."

Note: The range of Han Dynasty crossbows mentioned here is based on the author's actual experience and may be significantly shorter than the data given online.

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(End of this chapter)